John A. Kennedy & Associates
The Original Fire Experts
Meier Fire Investigation is founded on the John A. Kennedy & Associates legacy. Richard Meier trained under Fire Investigation legends Patrick Kennedy and his father John Kennedy.
Notice to Former Kennedy & Associates Clients
John A. Kennedy & Associates of Sarasota, Florida has ceased all investigative operations. Meier Fire Investigation, owned by Pat’s daughter Christine & his son-in-law Rich, continues his legacy and can assist you with your fire investigation needs.
Patrick Kennedy 1947-2017
Fire Investigation Industry Legend Fire & Explosion Investigator
With 1000’s of fire & explosion investigations, during his more than 50-year career, Pat had an unrivaled depth of experience. He skillfully used that experience to build strong, scientific cases for his clients.
He was the senior-most, active fire analyst, with more years of experience that any other active fire investigation professional. He held three Bachelor of Science degrees including a Summa Cum Laude degree in Fire and Safety Engineering Technology from the University of Cincinnati.
He wrote the book on Fire & Explosion Investigation – Literally!
His text, Explosion Investigation and Analysis, was the first comprehensive text to specifically address the investigation of fires & explosions from perspective of an Expert Witness.
Patrick served on several prominent fire investigations related codes and standards committees of both the ASTM and the NFPA. He was a charter principal member of the NFPA Technical Committees on Fire Investigations (921) and principal member the NFPA Technical Committee on Fire Investigator Professional Qualifications (1033).
Pat Kennedy passed away on March 4, 2017. He was the proud father of of three daughters, all of whom, work in the fire investigation field.
John A. Kennedy 1918-2016
Fire Investigation Industry Founder Fire & Explosion Investigator
John Kennedy was the founder of John A. Kennedy and Associates, NAFI and modern fire investigation. His innovations in fire scene technology, fire pattern analysis, fire investigation methodology and fire investigator training, revolutionized the fire and explosion investigation industry.
Many of the theories, procedures and techniques originated and popularized by John Kennedy are now considered the standard procedures of fire and explosion investigation.
Thousands of fire investigators got their “basic training” from courses originated and taught by John Kennedy, at such schools as the Purdue Arson Seminar, the Ohio State Arson Seminar, the programs of the IAAI and NAFI.
John Kennedy passed away January 8, 2016.
Legacy Research from Kennedy & Associates
Depth of Calcination Measurement In Fire Origin Analysis
P. Kennedy, K. Kennedy & R. Hopkins, 2003
KEYWORDS: Fire Patterns, Fire Investigation, Fire Science, Calcination, Fire Investigation Techniques
This is a report on a research project into the practical use of measurements of depth of calcination of room-fire exposed gypsum wallboard, under actual fire scene investigation conditions, to discover and illustrate movement and intensity fire patterns for fire origin determination. The work builds on the previously published research of Posey and Posey, 1983; McGraw and Mowrer, 1999; Mowrer, 2000; and Schroeder and Williamson, 2000 and the procedures outlined in NFPA 921.
ABSTRACT
This is a report on a research project into the practical use of measurements of depth of calcination of roomfire exposed gypsum wallboard, under actual fire scene investigation conditions, to discover and illustrate movement and intensity fire patterns for fire origin determination. The work builds on the previously published research of Posey and Posey, 1983; McGraw and Mowrer, 1999; Mowrer, 2000; and Schroeder and Williamson, 2000 and the procedures outlined in NFPA National Fire Codes component document NFPA 921-2001, Guide for Fire and Explosion Investigations, sections 4.12 through 4.12.4.
This research project was performed in conjunction with the 2002 National Advanced Fire, Explosion, and Arson Investigation Training Program cosponsored by the National Association of Fire Investigators (NAFI), the Eastern Kentucky University Fire and Safety Engineering Technology Program (EKU), and the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA).
The research was designed to illustrate and, if appropriate, support the system for measuring depth of calcination on fire exposed vertical gypsum wallboard and used in fire patterns analysis as recommended in NFPA 921.
The tests and data collection were conducted in March 2002 on full-scale room fire evolutions, using ten fire investigators of widely varying experience, from novices to full time professionals, to make and record depth of calcination measurements with no previous knowledge of the actual origins of the test fires.
Additional supplemental laboratory bench testing was conducted as background research into the loss of density of gypsum wallboard from heat exposure at the Forensic Fire Science and Technology Laboratories of John A. Kennedy and Associates.
Research test results were good, providing accurate and reproducible fire movement analysis and supporting the calcination measurement techniques, systems, and tools advocated by NFPA 921. Collected data was comparable among participants with widely varied fire investigation experience and after only minimal instruction and practice in the calcination depth measurement techniques and tools.
A Fire Analysis Tool Revisited – Acoustic Soot Agglomeration in Residential Smoke Alarms.
P. Kennedy, K. Kennedy, G. Gorbett, 2004
KEYWORDS: Acoustic Soot Agglomeration, Smoke Alarms, Smoke Detector, Fire Investigation, Fire Alarms,
This paper produces additional research particularly focusing on the production of acoustic soot agglomeration patterns in both ionization and photo-electric single station residential smoke alarms. Producing new test data, and combining that with previously reported data, this research work concludes that the presence or absence of acoustic soot agglomeration patterns on smoke detectors exposed to sooty smoke atmospheres was in fact a viable fire analysis tool.
ABSTRACT
In modern fire incident analysis and the litigations that frequently follow from them, it is often of great importance to know whether a particular smoke alarm operated during a fire event. Like so many other issues involving the interpretation of fire analysis data, some scientifically verifiable means of determining if a given smoke alarm had activated properly was needed. Best would be some identifiable physical evidence of smoke alarm activation. As early as 1996, it had been put forward that the presence of enhanced soot patterns on fire event exposed smoke alarms was a useable method of determining that a particular smoke alarm had or had not properly activated. Research first published in 1999 and later updated research published in 2001 began to scientifically address the issue. Building on that earlier research, this paper produces additional research particularly focusing on the production of acoustic soot agglomeration patterns in both ionization and photo-electric single station residential smoke alarms. Producing new test data, and combining that with previously reported data, this research work concludes that the presence or absence of acoustic soot agglomeration patterns on smoke detectors exposed to sooty smoke atmospheres was in fact a viable fire analysis tool.
Fractional Vaporization of Ignitable Liquids: Flash Point and Ignitability Issues
P. Kennedy, A. Armstrong, 2006
KEYWORDS: Flashpoint, Flammability Testing, MSDS, Flammable Liquids, Paints, Solvents, Chemicals
Explosions or flash fires have occurred under circumstances in which suspected liquid fuel doesnot appear to explain the fuel source because of its high reported flash point. In some cases, science can explain the fuel source by the application of the principal of fractional distillation. Test can reveal that perceived ignitability of the original liquid is masked or underreported in material safety data sheets, labels, warnings, and product use instructions.
ABSTRACT
Explosions or flash fires have occurred under circumstances in which suspected liquid fuel does not appear to explain the fuel source because of its high reported flash point. These instances have posed a conundrum to the fire investigation profession. In some cases, science can explain the fuel source by the application of the principal of fractional distillation.
Commercial ignitable liquid products that are mixtures of various ignitable liquid components or ignitable and non-ignitable liquid components, with varying vapor pressures, can undergo fractional vaporization. In this process normal evaporation can separate the various ignitable or non-ignitable components, with the lighter end fraction (high vapor pressure) compounds evaporating first. When applied to flammable and combustible liquids, this process is sometimes referred to in the fire and explosion investigation profession as “weathering.” In these situations, the flash point of the remaining (not yet vaporized) liquid will be higher than the measured flash point of the “non-weathered” original liquid. It is possible for such mixtures to evolve concentrated vapors and be ignited even when the parent liquid is at a temperature below its reported flash point.
When applied to mixtures of ignitable and non-ignitable components in which the non-flammable component(s) evolve first, the process is referred to as “outgassing.” When the earlier evolving volatile compounds are generally considered “non-combustible,” such as halogenated hydrocarbons like methylene chloride, the flash point of the original liquid can actually initially increase and then decrease as vaporization continues.
In both situations, fractional vaporization can be extremely dangerous in that the perceived ignitability of the original liquid is masked or underreported in material safety data sheets, labels, warnings, and product use instructions.
In general, the process is observed more frequently in products that are designed to be used in coatings where the distribution or spreading over large surface areas is expected. Evaporation is an intended part of their application. These dangerous situations have been observed in products such as paints, stains, other surface coating materials, cleaning products, and strippers/removers.
Fire Pattern Persistence and Predictability on Interior Finish and Construction Materials During Pre and Post Flashover Compartment Fires.
R. Hopkins, G. Gorbett, P. Kennedy, 2007
KEYWORDS: Fire Science, Fire Patterns, Flashover, Full-room Involvement, Full-Scale Test Burn
A series of eight full scale tests were conducted in identically constructed, finished and furnished compartments. In each of the tests with one exception all fires progressed to full room involvement. These test burns demonstrated fire pattern persistence and predictability during pre and post full room involvement fires. The full scale tests demonstrated that the fire patterns described in current literature are correct and when used properly can assist in the determination of the origin of a fire.
Abstract
Fire Patterns, as defined by NFPA-921 are the visible or measurable physical effects that remain after a fire. Fire Pattern analysis has been a key factor in the determination of the origin and cause of fires for the past 50 years. In 1985 the Advanced Fire Patterns Project was formed between the National Association of Fire Investigators (NAFI) and the Fire and Safety Engineering Technology Program, Eastern Kentucky University to complete research into the development of fire patterns on exposed surfaces. Since the formation of the project, considerable work has been undertaken to study fire growth and spread in both full scale and ¼ scale test burns. Much of the data generated has been utilized to supplement instruction in the area of Fire Pattern Analysis.
To date, more than seventy full-scale, half-scale, and quarter-scale burn tests have been completed at EKU as a result of the seminars sponsored by NAFI, EKU and later also co-sponsored by the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA). The research burns have enhanced the knowledge base of the fire investigation community.
Separate from the work done by the AFPRP, the National Institute of Standards and Technology, Center for Fire Research obtained funding from the United States Fire Administration to conduct full scale fire tests to study Burn Patterns. This research began in November 1994 with the final report “USFA Fire Burn Pattern Tests” issued in 1997. Included in the summary of results is the confirmation that “many of the concepts, investigative systems, dynamics of pattern production, and patterns analysis concepts put forward in the current, peer reviewed, standard text for fire pattern analysis in the profession, NFPA 921-1995, The Guide for Fire and Explosion Investigations were confirmed by the program’s testing.”
Another series of full scale fire tests were conducted as a result of funding provided by the National Institute of Justice, with a report “Full Scale Room Burn Pattern Study”, released in December 1997. Included in the section of the report, Discussion and Conclusion: “Significant differences in the condition and appearance of the burn rooms and furnishings were present between experiments with the same method of ignition. The differences consisted of the severity of burning, the locations of the patterns, and the types of patterns present. Overall, there was a lack of pattern consistency. As mentioned previously, ventilation effects are the likely cause of the pattern inconsistencies, and should be tightly controlled in future experiments.”
The purpose of this paper is to describe the results of the most recent full scale test burns that were conducted at Eastern Kentucky University and sponsored by the Advanced Fire Pattern Project. For the past 2 years a series of eight full scale tests were conducted in identically constructed, finished and furnished compartments. In each of the tests with one exception all fires progressed to full room involvement. Additionally, a full scale test was completed on a specially constructed and furnished room to assist in studying fire growth and spread and the resulting pattern formation in comparison to the fire patterns that were witnessed in a compartment of an actual compartment fire in which there had been a fatality.
These full scale test burns provided a considerable amount of data concerning fire pattern development and evolution during fire growth and spread.
As a result of the previous research conducted into the development of fire patterns, as well as the report recommendations of USFA and NIJ, the Advanced Fire Pattern Research Project (AFPRP) decided to conduct another series of tests. The next series of tests would be conducted in the same test facility with identical furniture for each series of two test burns. Factors, such as ventilation, would be controlled as much as possible. Each of the test burns would be instrumented with thermocouples and documented using 35mm, digital still and video photography.
Recent research into the development of fire patterns has shown that the primary mode behind fire pattern creation stems from the amount of heat flux on a materials surface. Therefore, the plume is the primary means of pattern production in the early stages of a fire. As the fire develops, a substantial upper layer begins to form and starts transferring heat to the wall and ceiling surfaces. This heat transfer can be regarded as relatively universal throughout the upper portions of the compartment, except at the plume interface. Obviously, at the interface of the plume the heat transferred will be greater and for a longer duration.
As the temperature in the upper layer increases and the duration of contact between the upper layer and the wall/ceiling surfaces increases, the heat flux on these surfaces reaches a critical threshold that begins damaging the material and creating patterns. Furthermore, the ceiling jet formed by the intersection of the plume will cause greater heat to be transferred first to the ceiling surface and later to the wall surfaces. The heat flux will be greater at the location where the ceiling jet passes over these surfaces and lessens as the velocity of the jet diminishes as it flows away from the centerline of the plume. In other words, the temperature of the affected surface is hottest near the plume centerline and becomes cooler as the distance from the centerline of the plume increases due to the cooling by heat losses to the ceiling. Thus, inflicting more damage and creating more distinct patterns at the centerline of the plume and lesser damage the further away from the centerline.
The ceiling jet and the gases from the upper layer begin to have a combined effect on the surfaces nearest the plume. As the compartment transitions through flashover and into full-room involvement, the upper layer descends to the floor and encompasses the entire volume of the compartment. Therefore, the walls, ceiling, and floor surfaces are now receiving almost identical heating or a similar magnitude of heat flux. Because of this, some fire investigators often regard the initial plume patterns as being destroyed or obscured. A major part of this research was to determine if the initial plume patterns persist past full-room involvement.
Specifically, these test burns demonstrated fire pattern persistence and predictability during pre and post full room involvement fires. The full scale tests demonstrated that the fire patterns described in current literature are correct and when used properly can assist in the determination of the origin of a fire.
Backdraft, Flashover, and Other Rapid Fire Progression Phenomena
G. Gorbett, R. Hopkins, 2007
KEYWORDS: Backdraft, Flashover, Firefighter Injury, Fire Research
Rapid fire progression phenomena, such as backdraft and flashover, can result in danger to firefighters. This paper examines current research and divides these phenomena into categories based on fundamental physical and chemical processes.
Abstract
Rapid fire progression phenomena, such as backdraft and flashover, can result in danger to firefighters. This paper examines current research and divides these phenomena into categories based on fundamental physical and chemical processes. Implications include improved communication and technology transfer between fire scientists and fire service training personnel, training and education of firefighters, and firefighter safety during fire suppression activities.
Pioneer Hotel Report
G. Gorbett, D. Eliassen, P. Kennedy, J. Lentini, D. Smith, 2008
KEYWORDS: Case Study, Arson, Wrongful Conviction
The primary goal of this review is to identify the factors relied upon by the fire investigators in 1970 that led to the conviction of Mr. Taylor for the crime of arson. Depending upon the outcome of that review, the second goal was to provide recommendations that, if followed, would lead to the remediation of Mr. Taylor’s conviction. The third goal was to identify the errors in the determination in the crime of arson (and classifying the fire cause as incendiary) in order to prevent future errors.
Report on the Peer Review of the Expert Testimony in the Case of State of Arizona v. Louis C. Taylor
Executive Summary:
The fire that killed 28 guests at the Pioneer Hotel had only one point of origin. The conclusion that this fire was an intentional fire rested entirely upon the determination that the fire started in two places. There is no factual basis for this allegation.
The State’s expert witness in this case relied on interpretations of fire “indicators” that they were taught constituted evidence of arson. While we have no doubt that these witnesses believed what they were saying, all of the indicators relied upon by the investigators at the time of this fire have since been proven to be scientifically invalid and unreliable.
Advancements in the fire science and investigative methodology of fire investigation have been made in the thirty-eight years since the Pioneer Hotel investigation, particularly in the area of fire patterns analysis research. Continuous (and in some cases, remedial) training and professional development of fire investigators is required. Additionally, participants in the justice system need to become better educated, more skeptical of opinion testimony for which there is no scientific support, and need to ensure that defendants in arson cases are afforded the opportunity to retain independent experts to evaluate charges that a fire was incendiary.
When the facts and opinions expressed by the investigators in 1970 are analyzed using current fire investigation science and technology, this fire would not be classified as incendiary.
In the cases of individuals already convicted using what is now known to be bad science (or no science), the Courts should consider the “new” science as “newly discovered evidence.”
The fire at the Pioneer Hotel occurred in Tucson, Arizona, on December 20, 1970. In 1972, Louis C. Taylor was convicted of 28 counts of first-degree murder and arson for setting the fire at the Pioneer Hotel, and is currently serving a life sentence in prison.
The undersigned fire investigators have been requested by the Arizona Justice Project to examine the conviction of Louis C. Taylor. None of the authors has received any compensation for this pro bono review, nor will any compensation be accepted.
Full-Scale Room Burn Patterns Study.
G. Gorbett, W. Hicks, P. Kennedy & R. Hopkins, 2008
KEYWORDS: Fire Patterns, Full-scale Testing, Fire Science, Fire Dynamics, Heat and Flame Vectors
Key questions to be addressed by the research burns were: (a) patterns persistence through flashover and full room involvement, (b) reproducibility of patterns geometry in minimal variable testing methods, and (c) reaffirmation of standard patterns analysis methodologies, such as heat and flame vector analysis, depth of calcination measurement, and truncated cone patterns formation and analysis. These tests demonstrate a remarkable resemblance of patterns in minimal variable testing methods. Patterns persistence through flashover and full room involvement was observed, as well as the reproducibility of specific fire patterns, heat and flame vector analysis results, and depth of calcination measurements. In addition, several ancillary fire effects, fire patterns, and post-fire analysis issues were successfully examined.
ABSTRACT
Full-scale research burns into the nature of patterns in compartment fires were conducted at the new fire research facility of Eastern Kentucky University. Key questions to be addressed by the research burns were: (a) patterns persistence through flashover and full room involvement, (b) reproducibility of patterns geometry in minimal variable testing methods, and (c) reaffirmation of standard patterns analysis methodologies, such as heat and flame vector analysis, depth of calcination measurement, and truncated cone patterns formation and analysis. As an added value these research burns were designed to test the validity of content of the National Fire Code© component document, NFPA 921 – Guide for Fire and Explosion Investigations chapters on Fire Patterns, and Origin Determination.
These tests demonstrate a remarkable resemblance of patterns in minimal variable testing methods. Patterns persistence through flashover and full room involvement was observed, as well as the reproducibility of specific fire patterns, heat and flame vector analysis results, and depth of calcination measurements. In addition, several ancillary fire effects, fire patterns, and post-fire analysis issues were successfully examined.
Thermometry in Fire Investigation and Analysis
P. Kennedy, 2011
KEYWORDS: Fire Science, Thermodynamics, Fire Investigation, Laboratory Testing
Understanding the Practical Use of Basic Thermometry in Fire and Explosion Investigations and Analyses
Thermometry is that branch of fire science/physics which studies the science, methodology, technology, instrumentalities, and practice of temperature measurement.
The days of the fire investigator ill-trained in science are over. The stakes are simply too high to allow to persist, the old-school mentality of considering fire investigation as a “blue collar” occupation. The competent, contemporary fire investigator and fire analyst are required to be educated in, and well conversant with, a myriad of scientific, engineering, and technological subjects. Among these topics is thermometry.
Understanding the basics of thermometry is not only fundamental to competent fire investigation and analysis, but is required by the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) National Fire Code© NFPA 1033-2009 the Standard for Professional Qualifications for Fire Investigator, in its section 1.3.8*: .
Fire Effects on High Efficiency Compact Fluorescent Lighting.
R. Meier, 2012
KEYWORDS: Fire Science, Fire Investigation, Techniques, Light Bulbs, Fire Patterns
For years investigators have used heat distorted light bulbs to help determine the origin and intensity of fires. The purpose of this study is to establish a base of information on the effects of fire on new styles of lighting, and how the effects of fire can aid the investigator in his or her work.
Abstract
The Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 has mandated that most of the incandescent lights currently in use will be phased out by 2014 and replaced with more efficient means of producing light. Many manufacturers have begun producing compact fluorescent and LED lighting to replace the incandescent bulb. While this is a boon for energy conservation, what will it mean for the fire investigator? For years investigators have used heat distorted light bulbs to help determine the origin and intensity of fires. The purpose of this study is to establish a base of information on the effects of fire on new styles of lighting, and how the effects of fire can aid the investigator in his or her work.
UNDERSTANDING NFPA 921
Patrick M. Kennedy, B.Sc. (Hons.), CFEI, CFPS, MIFireE, ASSE October, 2012
KEYWORDS: NFPA 921, Fire Codes, Fire Investigation, Fire Litigation, Fire Experts
There’s never been a more controversial document in fire investigation. Read all about the common myths and misunderstandings of NFPA 921 from a company that’s been there from the beginning.
THE MYTHS AND MYSTERIES OF NFPA 921
ABSTRACT
Misunderstandings about the nature and content of National Fire Code© NFPA 921 – Guide for Fire and Explosion Investigations abound in the fire investigation industry. These “Myths and Mysteries” tend to depreciate the value of the document, especially among those who need its guidance the most. This is caused by failures to understand and appreciate the nature of the NFPA consensus code promulgation system, the history of the fire investigation profession, the nature and history of NFPA 921 itself; and even semantics.
This presentation is designed to expose and explain what the ill-informed see as the “myths and mysteries” and perceived shortcomings of this seminal document. One of the three, still serving, original Technical Committee on Fire Investigations members discusses the most common and controversial misunderstandings and misconceptions about NFPA 921.
A Detailed Look at the Necked Vessel Flame Thrower Effect
R. Meier, P. Kennedy, K. Smith, G. Gorbett & P. Powell, 2014
KEYWORDS: Fire Investigation, Flammable Liquids, Fire Behavior, Necked Vessel Fiame Thrower Effect,
In 2013 and 2014 extensive study and laboratory tests were conducted outside the scope of any specific incident or litigation. This data was combined with data collected during case specific research conducted during the previous 36 years. The study viewed and evaluated the variables in producing the “Necked Vessel Flame Thrower Effect”, including: Vessel Shape, Total Vessel Volume, Opening Diameter, Percent Filled, Pouring Rate (fast or slow), Fuel Temperature and Flashpoint, whether the opening is occluded or not, and the nature (character) of the expulsion of ignited contents.
Abstract
Fire and explosion incidents involving ignitable liquids carried in and poured from containers have likely occurred for as long as mankind has been carrying ignitable liquids in containers. These incidents have taken many forms from simple pool fires to massive explosions. The outcome of each incident is dependent on many variables. Each variable has an effect, and the combination of the different variables can end in a result not always obvious or intuitively expected.
Of the many possibilities involving ignitable liquids in containers, one has lately become a “cause célèbre” and the frequent subject of litigation. This particular phenomenon is the overpressure and expulsion of flaming vapor and liquid from a container the when the contents are being poured near or onto a source of ignition. Lately touted as a “newly realized phenomenon,” the forcible ejection of an ignitable liquid is, or at least should be, the recognized result of a container becoming pressurized during the incident and its contents being forced through a narrow opening.
While frequently described as an “explosion”, the phenomenon is in fact a poorly understood type of flash fire which can take several different iterations. The outcome of the event – and in fact whether or not the event will even occur – is the result of several variables and their interactions. It is these variables and the results of their combinations affect which this paper will address.
The first litigation – involving an incident in which burning ignitable liquid was propelled out of a container – was filed in Louisville, Kentucky in 1978. Original investigative research discovered that this was a repeatable phenomenon, and the result of the ignitable liquid being poured out of the container into an open bowl already containing an open flame. Recently, some in the field of fire investigation have “rediscovered” the phenomenon and given it new names even though this phenomenon has been known and documented for almost four decades.
In 2013 and 2014 extensive study and laboratory tests were conducted outside the scope of any specific incident or litigation. This data was combined with data collected during case specific research conducted during the previous 36 years. The study viewed and evaluated the variables in producing the “Necked Vessel Flame Thrower Effect”, including: Vessel Shape, Total Vessel Volume, Opening Diameter, Percent Filled, Pouring Rate (fast or slow), Fuel Temperature and Flashpoint, whether the opening is occluded or not, and the nature (character) of the expulsion of ignited contents. This work, combined with some of the previous research conducted for litigation purposes, will be presented in this paper.
Lithium Ion Batteries
R. Meier & P. Kennedy, 2016
KEYWORDS: Lithium Ion Batteries, Battery Fires, Battery Explosions, Electronics Fires, E-cigarette Fires
Since their introduction, there have been many fire and explosion incidents where LI cell or batteries were involved. Sometimes the batteries were the source of ignition and sometime even the source of the fuel. In some cases, however, the batteries were victims of the fire. Determining the order of events is not always easy. Proper understanding of battery fundamentals, and investigation methodology when dealing with lithium-ion technology, is crucial to making the correct determination.
ABSTRACT
Lithium-ion batteries have become a staple of modern life. Many of the devices we use daily depends on these batteries to make the portable and lightweight. Many people are not even aware that they carry one or more lithium ion cells or batteries around with them daily, sometime even attached to their own bodies.
Lithium-ion batteries have the highest energy density for any commercially available on the market. Other benefits are low self discharge, and low “memory” (tendency to acquire a maximum or minimum state of charge). It is this fact that makes them so popular. Uses have been found for lithium-ion batteries in automotive, marine, aerospace and military and communications applications to name but a few.
No longer need someone lug around a heavy, awkward device like the original “brick” cell phone. Today’s cell phones are weighed in ounces and grams, not pounds and kilos. This fact also makes them potentially more dangerous, as more energy is packed into a tighter space with less means of containment.
All batteries will fail. It is simply a matter of chemistry, physics and time. This is true for any battery, whether alkaline, nickel-cadmium, or lithium-ion. Fortunately, the vast majority of batteries fail in a benign manner, causing little more than some aggravation and inconvenience to the user. Those batteries that fail in the other extreme the catastrophic failure is of concern to the fire investigator and others involved in public safety. Since their introduction, there have been many fire and explosion incidents where LI cell or batteries were involved. Sometimes the batteries were the source of ignition and sometime even the source of the fuel. In some cases, however, the batteries were victims of the fire. Determining the order of events is not always easy. Proper understanding of battery fundamentals, and investigation methodology when dealing with lithium-ion technology, is crucial to making the correct determination.